Practices of Performance Appraisal in Public Service: A Comparative Empirical Review of Tanzania and Kenya

Abstract

This study examines the performance appraisal practices within the public services of Tanzania and Kenya to inform context-sensitive reforms and cross-national learning. Currently, there is a gap in comparative studies on performance appraisal practices between these two countries. In addressing this comparison gap in the literature, the study utilises empirical reviews and Goal-Setting Theory as its review and theoretical framework. The goal-setting theory suggests that clear, specific, and challenging goals, supported by feedback, are the primary drivers of work motivation and performance. Methodologically, the study employed a structured narrative review design, and 48 empirical studies published between 2016 and 2026 were synthesised. Data were retrieved from Google Scholar, Semantic Scholar, and SciSpace. The study utilised a thematic synthesis approach to analyse heterogeneous qualitative and quantitative evidence across both countries. The study found that both countries have established formal, government-wide frameworks such as Tanzania's PEPMIS and Kenya's TPAD/Performance Contracting. Key practices include participatory target setting, mid-year reviews, and the use of digital platforms. However, Tanzania follows a more centralised model, while Kenya uses multiple overlapping tools. Both countries face persistent implementation gaps, including heavy administrative burdens, insufficient training, and low employee trust because of perceived subjectivity and weak linkages between appraisal results and tangible rewards. The study recommends simplifying appraisal forms/tools to reduce bureaucratic burden, implementing regular hands-on training for supervisors, and ensuring a transparent, guaranteed link between high performance and rewards. Additionally, strengthening digital infrastructure is essential for the success of e-performance initiatives.

Keywords: Performance Appraisal, Public Service, Tanzania, Kenya, Performance Appraisal Practices.

Introduction

1.1 Background of the Study

Performance appraisal is now widely recognised as a core human resource management (HRM) instrument in public administration because it links individual effort to organisational goals, influences motivation, and provides a basis for accountability and improvement in public service delivery ([82]; [61]).

Globally, performance appraisal has evolved alongside broader performance management reforms in the public sector. The evolution and introduction of performance appraisal techniques owe their foundation to these reforms, specifically the New Public Management ([71]; [77]). This popular strategic shift by various governments from traditional management styles to New Public Management has been accompanied by the emergence of a broader performance-based culture in public administration. Public service organisations are increasingly expected to define clear objectives, use indicators and key performance measures, and report on results (Furculița, 2023). Additionally, public entities began to focus on the use of performance indicators, analysis and evaluation, and systematic performance reporting as core dimensions of a performance-oriented public sector [50].

The civil service among many European Union (EU) nations views individual performance appraisal systems as standard components of central government New Public Management. A comparative review of 18 European countries shows that these systems increasingly reflect a tension between two models, namely an incentivising type of appraisal, which is typical of the New Public Management (NPM) approach, and a developmental type, associated with post-NPM thinking (Hajnal & Staroňová, 2021). While it is true that NPM-inspired reforms stress performance-related pay, targets, and sanctions, more recent developments emphasise feedback, learning, and capacity building, suggesting a gradual shift from viewing appraisals as control instruments to seeing them as tools for employee development (Hajnal & Staroňová, 2021).

The new public management influence on performance appraisal is similar to nations such as China, where a new National Performance Appraisal, for example, in public hospitals seeks to balance the interests of multiple stakeholders and uses a balanced scorecard framework to drive quality and efficiency improvements [85].

In Africa, performance appraisal and related performance management reforms have become central to public sector modernisation, driven by internal demands for efficiency and external pressures linked to good governance and sustainable development ([9]; [13]; Banda, 2022). Evidence from Nigerian federal regulatory agencies shows governments are rolling out performance appraisal systems across entire civil services in response to calls for greater accountability and efficiency, especially in economic constraints [82].

1.2. Context of Tanzania and Kenya

Within this broader African context, East African countries such as Kenya, Tanzania, and Uganda have embraced performance-based reforms as part of their efforts to strengthen governance and improve public service delivery ([59]; [4]). Tanzania and Kenya, neighbouring countries with many similarities, both introduced performance appraisals in the public service through reforms in the 1990s and 2000s ([52]; Ong'era & Musili, 2019; [10]).

In Tanzania, performance appraisal has historically been framed within broader civil service reforms of the late 1990s and early 2000s aimed at strengthening results-based management. The Open Performance Review and Appraisal System (OPRAS) was introduced in 2004 as a central instrument that replaced confidential appraisal to formalise target setting, review individual performance, and link employee efforts to organisational objectives. The confidential appraisal system has many flaws and complaints, thus proved unsuitable ([77]; [39]). More recently, Tanzania has moved towards digitalisation of performance management through the Public Employee Performance Management Information System (PEPMIS). PEPMIS is a digital system for evaluating employee performance in the government that replaces OPRAS and has been implemented within the public service in Tanzania [80]. Similar to confidential appraisal, OPRAS had weaknesses such as poor linkage with incentives, lack of support and understanding; hence, the government replaced it with PEPMIS in 2024 ([6]; [27]). Guided by the Job Characteristics Model, PEPMIS suggests that it is a continuation and a deepening of earlier appraisal reforms, aiming to improve data quality, transparency, and timeliness in evaluating public employees, but also that its impact depends heavily on user understanding and acceptance.

Kenya's experience with performance appraisal has a background of a closed annual confidential report system in the pre-2000s, whereby in 2003, the government of Kenya introduced an advanced performance appraisal tool named GP 247 ([33]; [10]) and revised it in 2006, which is also referred as Staff Performance Appraisal System (SPAS) ([54]; [8]). In the education sector, the Teachers Service Commission (TSC) implemented a Performance Contracting through the Teacher Performance Appraisal and Development (TPAD) tool introduced in 2016 [65], with the explicit aim of improving teacher performance and accountability and fostering a comprehensive, child‑friendly learning environment in public primary schools [70]. Evidence shows that, more than a decade after TPAD's introduction, pupil learning outcomes remain scarce and inconclusive, highlighting an implementation and effectiveness gap [70]. Beyond education, Kenyan public organisations have invested in strengthening civil servants' performance through training at the Kenya School of Government and the School of Management and Public Administration for deliberate improvement of civil servants' performance [59].

Both countries' performance appraisal systems are embedded within wider policy and governance frameworks that reflect international influences and best-practice models. The move from paper-based appraisal forms to digital platforms in Tanzania, exemplified by PEPMIS, mirrors broader global trends towards e‑government and data-driven performance management [80]. Kenya's adoption of Performance Contracting and structured appraisal tools such as TPAD aligns with international shifts from purely incentivising NPM-style appraisal to more developmental approaches that combine accountability with support for employee improvement (Hajnal & Staroňová, 2021; [70]).

Both countries face persistent challenges related to awareness, fairness, utilisation of results, and linkage to service outcomes ([59]; [70]; [80]). Understanding the practices of performance appraisal in these two contexts is therefore crucial not only for national policymakers and practitioners but also for scholars and reformers interested in how global ideas about performance management are adapted and implemented in African public services.

1.3. Problem Statement

Despite the adoption of performance appraisal systems across African public services, implementation remains problematic, with challenges including poor alignment of objectives, lack of capacity, weak accountability, and a focus on compliance rather than meaningful performance improvement ([7]; [81]). In Tanzania, the Open Performance Review and Appraisal System (OPRAS) and the newer Public Employees Performance Management Information System (PEPMIS) face persistent issues such as inadequate training, weak participatory goal-setting, limited resources, and poor communication of appraisal purposes to employees ([4]; [43]; [47]). Similarly, Kenya's performance appraisal systems, including the electronic Teacher Performance Appraisal and Development (eTPAD) system and broader Performance Contracting frameworks, struggle with inadequate project initiation processes, insufficient human resource management, and weak managerial practices ([46]; [36]). A significant gap exists between policy intentions and implementation realities in both countries, with formal appraisal frameworks failing to translate into effective practice on the ground ([44]; [43]). The consequences of these ineffective systems are substantial: they undermine organisational performance, reduce employee motivation and engagement, weaken accountability, and ultimately fail to improve public service delivery ([81]; [42]; [47]). However, there is limited comparative analysis examining how these challenges manifest differently across Tanzania and Kenya, despite the potential for cross-national learning to inform context-sensitive reforms and identify which institutional, political, and capacity factors shape appraisal system effectiveness in East African public services.

1.4. Purpose and Objectives

The overall purpose of this study is to examine the performance appraisal practices and challenges in Tanzania's and Kenya's public service.

The specific objectives of the study are to:

To examine the performance appraisal practices adopted in Tanzania's public service

To examine the performance appraisal practices adopted in Kenya's public service

To compare performance appraisal practices between Tanzania and Kenya

1.5. Significance of the Study

This study is important for several reasons. First, it contributes to academic knowledge by organising and synthesising scattered empirical findings on performance appraisal in two key East African public services.

Second, the review has practical value for policymakers, managers, and human resource practitioners in Tanzania and Kenya by clearly showing what practices are in place and how these issues compare across the two countries and suggesting performance appraisal policies and tools.

Third, the study is significant for development partners and regional reform actors who are interested in strengthening performance management in African public services. A clearer picture of what works, what does not, and why can help guide more realistic and context‑sensitive support to performance appraisal reforms in the region.

1.6. Scope and Delimitations

This study focuses on performance appraisal in the public services of Tanzania and Kenya, with emphasis on civil service and closely related public institutions. The review covers empirical studies (quantitative, qualitative, and mixed‑methods) that report on performance appraisal practices in these settings. It includes literature that examines traditional paper‑based systems, such as Tanzania's Open Performance Review and Appraisal System (OPRAS), newer digital platforms like PEPMIS, and formal appraisal arrangements linked to Performance Contracting and other tools in Kenya.

The study is delimited in several ways. It does not cover performance appraisal in the private sector or in other countries. It also does not collect new primary data; instead, it relies solely on existing empirical literature. While efforts are made to identify and include a wide range of relevant studies, the review is limited to published and accessible published academic articles from 2016 to 2026 and mainly in English, which means that some internal reports or non‑English studies may not be captured. The aim is therefore not to provide an exhaustive account of every appraisal practice in both countries but to offer a structured and comparative synthesis of the available empirical evidence.

1.7. Organisation of the Paper

The paper is organised as follows: section 1 covers the introduction, section 2 the theoretical framework, and section 3 the methodology. Section 4 covers findings, and sections 5 and 6 highlight discussion and conclusion and recommendations, respectively.

Theoretical Framework

This study uses Goal‑Setting Theory as its main theoretical lens to understand how performance appraisal is designed and practised in the public services of Tanzania and Kenya. Goal‑Setting Theory was developed in the 1960s mainly by Edwin Locke and later refined with Gary Latham and has become one of the most influential theories of work motivation and performance since the 1990s ([76]; [88]). This theory remains a central framework across many fields, from physical activity promotion and education to business performance management, and it continues to be updated and extended in new contexts (Cheng, 2023; [76]).

Goal‑Setting Theory starts from a simple but powerful assumption: people's behaviour at work is guided by conscious goals, and these goals direct attention, effort, and persistence [76]. When individuals know clearly what they are trying to achieve, they can focus their energy, choose appropriate strategies, and keep working even when tasks are difficult [21]. Controlled experiments in management have confirmed that people achieve higher levels of performance when they are given clear, specific and difficult goals compared to vague "do your best" instructions [21]. Evidence in sport also shows that structured goal‑setting interventions improve both task performance and important psychological outcomes, suggesting that the basic mechanisms proposed by the theory hold across different settings and activities [84].

The core principle of Goal‑Setting Theory is that specific, challenging goals lead to higher performance than easy, vague, or no goals [21]. Specificity helps employees understand exactly what is expected, while challenge signals that the organisation believes they can stretch beyond current levels [21]. Studies comparing different types of goals show that when goals are well defined and linked to clear process or performance standards, they produce stronger improvements than broad outcome targets alone [84].

A second key idea in goal‑setting theory is the link between goal clarity and motivation. Clear goals act as a "cognitive bridge" between motivation and behaviour by telling people what to prioritise and how to judge their own progress (Cheng, 2023). Research shows that well‑defined learning goals increase learners' motivation and persistence, because goals help them organise their efforts and see the link between their actions and eventual success (Cheng, 2023). In organisational settings, goal clarity and participation in goal‑setting have been found to enhance employee satisfaction and performance, as employees feel more involved and believe that their work is meaningful ([1]; [17]).

This theory is directly relevant to performance appraisal systems, which in practice revolve around setting objectives, monitoring progress, and evaluating outcomes. Many modern performance management tools explicitly draw on Goal‑Setting Theory.

In the public service context of this study, performance appraisal systems in Tanzania and Kenya also rest on the basic logic of goal‑setting practices, even if they use different tools and labels. Appraisal frameworks such as Tanzania's earlier OPRAS and the more recent PEPMIS, as well as Kenya's Performance Contractings and formal appraisal forms, are all designed to translate organisational and national priorities into individual work targets, review progress against these targets, and link results to decisions about rewards, promotion, training or other development actions.

From a Goal‑Setting Theory perspective, many of the challenges observed in African public services, such as vague or copied objectives, limited involvement of employees in setting their targets, lack of regular feedback, and weak connections between results and rewards, can be understood as failures to meet the theory's core conditions for effective goal‑setting. Where goals are not clear, not genuinely challenging, or not supported by ongoing feedback and appropriate incentives, employees are less likely to feel committed or motivated, and performance appraisal can be perceived as a routine or unfair exercise rather than a meaningful driver of improvement ([17]; [21]; [76]).

For these reasons, Goal‑Setting Theory is particularly suitable for this comparative study of performance appraisal practices in Tanzania and Kenya. First, it provides a clear and well‑tested framework for analysing how appraisal systems set, communicate, and monitor goals, and for explaining why certain practices may or may not lead to better performance ([21]; [76]). Second, it has been validated across many different sectors and cultural contexts, including logistics, healthcare, education, and high‑tech firms, which supports its use in examining public services in East Africa (Cheng, 2023; [17]; [84]; [88]). Third, the specific implementation problems reported in African public services, such as perceived unfairness, lack of clarity, poor linkage to rewards and development, and low motivation, map closely onto the conditions that Goal‑Setting Theory identifies as necessary for effective goal‑directed behaviour ([1]; [21]; [76]). Therefore, through this theory, the study can systematically examine whether and how the performance appraisal systems in Tanzania and Kenya create specific and challenging goals, ensure employee understanding and commitment, provide constructive feedback, and align appraisal results with meaningful consequences.

Methodology

This section covers the research methodology employed in this study. Specifically, the section uncovers the research design, data source and search strategy, inclusion and exclusion criteria, study selection process, data extraction as well as data analysis and synthesis.

3.1 Research Design

The research design employed in this study is a structured narrative review focusing on empirical studies of performance appraisal and performance management in the public services of Tanzania and Kenya. Unlike full systematic reviews that require highly formalised protocols, narrow questions and exhaustive database coverage, a narrative review allows the researcher to incorporate heterogeneous sources (e.g., journal articles, theses, government reports, grey literature) ([18]; [22]).

The design enhances transparency and replicability; the review follows several core steps from systematic review practice: a clear search strategy, explicit inclusion/exclusion criteria, structured data extraction, an organised selection and coding process, and synthesis similar to recent systematic literature reviews ([18]; [22]).

This design is particularly appropriate for a cross‑country empirical review where the aim is not only to catalogue findings but also to compare patterns, explain divergences, and map research gaps across Tanzania and Kenya ([69]; [18]).

3.2 Data Sources and Search Strategy

To capture empirical research evidence, the review draws on a wide range of secondary sources, consistent with multi‑source strategies used in cross‑disciplinary performance reviews published between 2016 and 2026 ([5]; [18]). Secondary sources comprise only peer‑reviewed journal articles and conference papers.

Electronic searches were conducted mainly through Google Scholar, Semantic Scholar, and Scispace, which are widely used platforms for comprehensive literature retrieval across disciplines ([75]; Gusenbauer, M. (2024). The search covered the period 2016–2026 to focus on performance appraisal practices in Kenya and Tanzania's public service. Only works published in English were included, and search strings were combined based on key concepts related to performance appraisal, public service, and the two focal countries, using Boolean operators as follows:

("performance appraisal" OR "performance management" OR "performance evaluation") OR "OPRAS" OR "PEPMIS" OR "Performance Contracting") AND ("public service" OR "civil service" OR "public sector" OR "government") AND ("Tanzania" OR "Kenya" OR "East Africa")

"performance appraisal" AND "public service" AND "Tanzania"

"performance appraisal" AND "civil service" AND "Kenya"

"performance management" AND "public sector" AND ("Tanzania" OR "Kenya")

This combination of broad and specific search strings follows established practices in systematic literature reviews that seek to capture both generic and context‑specific terminology [22]. Reference lists of key articles and reports were also snowballed to identify additional relevant studies, an approach commonly used to reduce the risk of omitting important empirical contributions [18].

3.3 Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria

To ensure that only relevant and sufficiently robust studies were synthesised, explicit inclusion and exclusion criteria were applied, following the logic of recent empirical and systematic reviews in performance‑related fields ([18]; [22]; [87]).

Inclusion Criteria:

Studies were included if they:

Reported empirical research (quantitative, qualitative, or mixed‑methods), including surveys, interviews, case studies, document analyses, or combinations thereof;

Focused on the public service/civil service or closely related public institutions in Tanzania and/or Kenya;

Examined performance appraisal or performance management with a clear and substantial discussion of appraisal practices, processes, or outcomes;

Were published between 2016 and 2026;

Were available in English;

Included peer‑reviewed journal articles.

These criteria reflect those used in other empirical literature reviews that centre on practice‑oriented questions and include both academic and policy research ([18]; [87]).

Exclusion Criteria:

Studies were excluded if they:

Were purely theoretical or conceptual with no empirical data;

Focused exclusively on the private sector or NGOs, with no clear link to public service organisations;

Mentioned performance appraisal without substantive examination of appraisal practices or challenges;

Were set in countries other than Tanzania or Kenya, even if within Africa or East Africa more broadly;

Were opinion pieces, commentaries, or editorials without systematic empirical methods;

Were published before 2016;

Had inaccessible full texts, even after attempts to obtain them via institutional or open‑access routes.

These exclusions are consistent with quality‑oriented filtering seen in systematic reviews on organisational performance and public sector reforms.

3.4 Study Selection Process

The study selection followed a PRISMA‑inspired flow, adapted for a structured narrative review. The initial database and web searches yielded 478 records from Google Scholar (213), Semantic Scholar (176) and the SciSpace database (89). After removing obvious duplicates and non‑academic items (e.g., unrelated news pieces, non‑substantive web pages), 207 records remained. Titles and abstracts were screened against the inclusion and exclusion criteria to exclude clearly irrelevant studies (e.g., private sector only, non‑appraisal HR topics, non‑Tanzania/Kenya contexts). The full texts of potentially relevant studies were retrieved and assessed for eligibility. At this stage, studies were excluded if they did not contain empirical data, did not substantively address performance appraisal, or were set entirely outside Tanzania and Kenya. Finally, 48 studies met all criteria and were included in the review. These comprised peer‑reviewed journal articles only.

3.5 Data Extraction

For each included study, relevant data were systematically extracted using a structured data extraction form, paralleling procedures used in other empirical and systematic literature reviews ([5]; [18]). The following information was recorded:

Bibliographic details: author(s), year of publication;

Country context: Tanzania, Kenya, or both (for comparative or regional studies);

Sector and organisational level: e.g., central ministries, local governments, regulatory agencies, education (schools, universities), health, or other specific public bodies;

Methodology;

Type of performance system: e.g., OPRAS, PEPMIS, Performance Contracting, sector‑specific appraisal tools;

Key performance appraisal practices examined;

This structured extraction enables systematic comparison across studies, in line with best practices in cross‑disciplinary performance and governance reviews ([5]; [69]; [18]).

3.6 Quality Appraisal

Although the review's primary aim is synthetic and descriptive, a basic quality appraisal of empirical studies was conducted to contextualise the strength and reliability of the evidence ([22]; [87]). Each empirical study was assessed on criteria such as clarity of research aims and questions, appropriateness and transparency of research design and methods and adequacy of sample size and sampling strategy (relative to the study's aims). Furthermore, clarity of data collection procedures and instruments, rigour of data analysis, coherence between data, analysis and conclusions, and reflexivity and discussion of limitations.

3.7 Data Analysis and Synthesis

Data analysis followed a thematic synthesis approach, appropriate for integrating heterogeneous qualitative and quantitative evidence in narrative reviews [5]. After familiarisation with the extracted data, an inductive-deductive coding process was applied.

First is initial coding; studies were coded for recurring themes related to design and formal features of appraisal systems. Second, implementation practices and challenges were identified. Third, categorisation of identified practices into codes and then grouping into higher‑order categories based on how appraisal is formally designed and actually conducted (practices). Fourth, country‑specific and comparative syntheses were conducted, and findings were organised by country within each thematic cluster.

Through this process, the review produces an integrated, comparative picture of how performance appraisal is practised in Tanzanian and Kenyan public services and the recommendations for public sector performance and reform.

Findings

4.1 Overview of Included Studies

Through a structured narrative review, this study synthesised 48 qualified scholarly articles to examine the practices and challenges of performance appraisal in the public service by focusing on two countries: Tanzania and Kenya. In summary, the study used 48 articles to compile the findings: 24 (50%) articles from Kenya and 24 (50%) articles from Tanzania. Articles illuminating OPRAS were 18, performance contracting (11), TPAD (6), PEPMIS (6), SPAS (2) and other methods (5). Most articles were published in 2024 (9), followed by 2023 (7), 2021 (6), and the remaining 26 articles were published in the subsequent years.

Source: Researchers (2026)

4.2 Performance Appraisal Practices in Tanzania

The performance appraisal practices in Tanzania's public service were synthesised and categorised into themes, whereby five (5) themes, as summarised in Table 2 below, were identified. The themes are participatory goal and target setting, continuous monitoring and review, feedback, coaching and development, linkage to HR decisions and rewards, and finally openness, fairness, and participation.

Specifically, the performance appraisal practices in Tanzania start with a simple conversation. Instead of a boss just handing out orders, supervisors and employees sit down together at the beginning of the year to agree on what needs to be done. They create what is called a performance agreement, where they set specific and realistic targets. This ensures that everyone knows exactly what is expected of them and how their individual work helps the bigger goals of their department or school.

Once these goals are set, the focus shifts to keeping a close eye on progress throughout the year. It isn't just a "once-a-year" event; it involves continuous monitoring. In many offices, this means having a mid-year review to see if things are on track. More recently, the government has introduced digital systems where employees log their daily tasks and subtasks online. This move toward digital record-keeping helps create a clear trail of evidence, making it easier for managers to see real-time progress rather than relying on memory at the end of the year.

As a result of constant monitoring, it becomes much easier for managers to provide regular feedback and support. The practice in Tanzania emphasises that appraisal should be a tool for growth, not just a way to point out mistakes. Supervisors are encouraged to act more like coaches or mentors, offering counselling and guidance when an employee hits a snag. An employee can identify exactly what kind of training or professional development an employee needs to do a better job in the future through discussing performance openly.

These discussions are not just for show; they have a direct impact on an employee's career. The results of these appraisals are used to make important HR decisions about who is ready for a promotion or a salary increase. In many cases, the scores help determine who gets a chance for further studies or who might be transferred to a different station. By linking the appraisal results to actual rewards and career progression, the system tries to motivate staff to stay committed to their duties.

For this link between work and rewards to feel fair, the process relies on a high level of openness and participation. A key practice is that both the supervisor and the employee must sign the appraisal forms together, showing they both agree on the final evaluation. Employees are also given the chance to evaluate themselves first. This "open" style is designed to build trust and ensure that the evaluation is transparent, giving employees a voice and even a way to appeal if they feel the results don't reflect their hard work.

Source: Researchers (2026)

4.3 Performance Appraisal Practices in Kenya

Apart from exploring performance appraisal practices in Tanzania's public service, the study also intends to do the same in Kenya's public service. Categorically, five (5) themes were identified, namely, performance contracting and strategic alignment, use of structured tools (TPAD, SPAS, e-Performance) and rating methods and benchmarking, and competency and service delivery assessment. Other themes are feedback, communication and collaborative planning, and finally, linkage to rewards and professional development.

In the Kenyan public service, performance appraisal is not just a human resources routine; it is a structured process designed to ensure that every civil servant contributes to the country's broader development goals. The journey of appraisal usually begins with the formalisation of expectations through Performance Contracting. This practice involves setting clear, measurable targets that align an individual's daily work with the strategic objectives of their specific department or state corporation. Through contract signing, employees and management enter into a mutual agreement on what success looks like for the year, creating a sense of accountability and financial stewardship across various sectors.

To make these high-level contracts work on the ground, the Kenyan public sector relies heavily on specialised tools and digital systems. For instance, in the education sector, the Teacher Performance Appraisal and Development (TPAD) tool is the standard for monitoring classroom effectiveness. Similarly, other government agencies use the Staff Performance Appraisal System (SPAS) or automated e-performance platforms. Other organisations used rating methods and benchmarking. These systems have moved the process away from simple paperwork toward a more data-driven approach, utilising HR scorecards and real-time digital tracking to keep a constant eye on progress rather than waiting until the end of the year to see how things are going.

When it comes to what is actually being measured, the focus is on a mix of technical competencies and service delivery standards. In schools, this means looking at how well a teacher prepares lesson plans, manages their classroom, and uses modern teaching aids like ICT. In other public offices, the criteria might include how efficiently a department handles public complaints or how well they manage their allocated budgets. The goal is to move beyond subjective opinions and instead use objective metrics, such as customer satisfaction surveys and service charters, to determine if the public is getting the quality of service they deserve.

This evaluation process is supported by a culture of continuous communication and collaborative planning. Rather than being a top-down command, many practices emphasise participatory goal setting where supervisors and subordinates sit down to negotiate targets. Throughout the year, this is followed by regular feedback sessions, mid-year reviews, and even 360-degree assessments where peers and sometimes even customers provide input. These discussions are meant to be a two-way street, allowing for coaching and mentoring to happen in real time, which helps in identifying areas where an employee might be struggling before it affects their final rating.

Ultimately, the entire appraisal cycle is designed to feed into the growth and motivation of the workforce. The results of these evaluations are used to make critical HR decisions regarding promotions, salary increments, and the distribution of rewards. Beyond just financial incentives, the appraisal process serves as a diagnostic tool to identify specific training needs. Through linking appraisal outcomes to professional development programmes and workshops, the system aims to ensure that the public service is not just checking boxes but is actively building a more competent and professional workforce for the future.

Source: Researchers (2026)

4.4 Comparative Analysis of Practices

Performance appraisal in both Kenya and Tanzania is formal and used in public service. In each country, governments have introduced official tools, standard forms, and clear cycles for reviewing the work of public servants. Kenya relies on several systems, such as Performance Contracting, teacher appraisal tools like TPAD, and staff appraisal systems such as SPAS. Tanzania, on the other hand, has built most of its public service appraisal around the previously used OPRAS (not used currently), and now the government uses digital systems like PEPMIS. The performance appraisal in public service has similarities and differences in these two countries, as highlighted below.

1. Formal appraisal systems and where they are used

Both countries now have formal, government‑backed appraisal systems that are used across many public organisations. In Tanzania, OPRAS was the main instrument applied in ministries, local government, health facilities, ports, and public secondary schools. More recently, PEPMIS has been introduced and is used across all public service organisations in Tanzania.

Kenya shows a more mixed picture. Performance Contracting is widely used in ministries, state corporations, counties, revenue agencies and others to manage organisational and departmental performance. At the same time, several staff-focused tools operate in parallel. In the education sector, teachers are appraised mainly through TPAD, while other public staff may be assessed using SPAS, Result-Orientated Employee Appraisal, or e‑performance appraisal modules within HR information systems. Universities and training institutions also report the use of methods such as management by objectives and 360‑degree feedback.

So, while Tanzania has one dominant framework that has been extended into different sectors (and now into digital form), Kenya has multiple overlapping systems that are tailored to different institutions and cadres.

2. Goal and target setting

Within these formal systems, a central practice in both countries is goal and target setting. In Tanzania, OPRAS requires each public servant to sign an annual performance agreement that lists individual objectives linked to the organisation's goals. Employees are expected to prepare clear, specific and realistic targets, often described as SMART, and to align them with departmental and organisational plans. With PEPMIS, these goals and key performance indicators are now entered electronically, with supervisors approving the performance plans online.

In Kenya, goal setting is equally important, though it often happens under different labels. Performance Contracting involves negotiating performance targets at the organisational, departmental, and sometimes individual level and then breaking them down into annual work plans. Teacher appraisal tools such as TPAD ask schools and teachers to set school‑wide targets together, plan lessons and other activities around those targets, and document what each teacher aims to achieve. SPAS and result-orientated employee appraisal systems also stress performance planning and fair, agreed targets before the appraisal period begins.

The common idea in both countries is that performance appraisal should begin with clear objectives that flow from higher‑level plans to individual staff. The main difference lies in the instruments used and how strongly they focus on organisational contracts (Kenya) versus individual agreements under a single national framework (Tanzania).

3. Participation and dialogue in the appraisal process

From goal setting, it is natural to look at how many staff are involved in the appraisal process itself. In both Kenya and Tanzania, there is a strong intention to make appraisal more participatory, even though practice does not always fully match this aim.

In Tanzania, several studies show that OPRAS is supposed to be based on joint planning and discussion. Employees and supervisors are expected to sit together, agree on objectives, fill in forms, and then sign them. PEPMIS goes further by allowing teachers and other staff to do self‑evaluation online and then submit their plans and reports for supervisor approval, which encourages ongoing dialogue.

Kenya has also moved towards more participation and open communication in appraisal. SPAS and TPAD emphasise appraisal interviews, supervisor–employee communication, peer observation, self‑evaluation, and even full 360‑degree assessment in some schools and institutions. Result-orientated employee appraisal systems ask supervisors to work with staff in agreeing on standards, even though in practice supervisors may still dominate the process. Some Performance Contracting and HRIS‑based systems also include opportunities for staff to submit appraisal requests, comment on ratings, and interact with managers in real time.

In short, both countries recognise that staff should not just be passive recipients of ratings. However, Kenya tends to experiment more with multi‑source feedback tools, while Tanzania's participation is more often framed around joint completion of OPRAS forms and, increasingly, self‑evaluation inside PEPMIS.

4. Monitoring, review cycles and feedback

Participation in planning is closely tied to how performance is followed up through the year. Both Kenya and Tanzania have moved away from treating appraisal as a single annual event and now include more regular monitoring, formal reviews, and feedback.

In Tanzania, OPRAS is built around an annual cycle with agreed targets, a mid‑year review, and an end‑year appraisal. Supervisors are expected to monitor progress, hold review meetings, and provide feedback to employees. In schools and councils, OPRAS guidelines instruct about giving staff copies of their appraisal reports, allowing them to comment, and discussing results in face‑to‑face sessions. With PEPMIS, monitoring becomes even more frequent: staff record tasks and subtasks, update their progress in the system, and receive feedback through the platform, which creates a more continuous flow of information.

Kenya shows a similar pattern, though fitted to its range of tools. Performance Contracting requires ongoing performance monitoring, quarterly or annual performance reports, and review meetings where results are discussed. TPAD includes regular evaluation of classroom preparation and teaching, as well as feedback sessions and performance review meetings at the school level. SPAS and result-orientated employee appraisal systems also emphasise continuous or periodic appraisals, feedback mechanisms, and formal documentation of results that can be revisited over time. Digital HRIS modules in the Teachers Service Commission Secretariat have added real‑time collaboration and automated workflows for managing the appraisal cycle.

Thus, in both countries performance appraisal has gradually become a process with set review points and feedback, rather than a once‑a‑year formality.

5. Appraisal methods and tools, including digital systems

These cycles of planning and review are supported by a variety of methods and tools, and here again we see both overlap and contrast between the two countries.

In Tanzania, OPRAS has long been a paper‑based system using standard forms, rating scales, and checklists, combined with management by objectives. More recently, PEPMIS has brought in a digital dimension: employees set goals electronically, update work progress, attach evidence of completed tasks, and undergo online monitoring and evaluation in sectors such as the judiciary and basic education.

Kenya has an even wider mix of methods. Alongside traditional supervisor ratings, many institutions use self‑evaluation, peer observation, subordinate evaluation, customer evaluation, and trainers' evaluation, especially in universities and training institutes. TPAD and SPAS both combine rating scales with structured observations, interviews, and records of classroom and professional activities. Result-orientated employee appraisal in some counties focuses on fair target setting, continuous appraisal, and supervisor‑completed forms but still uses clear criteria and standards. In addition, the TSC Secretariat uses an e‑performance appraisal module embedded in an HR information system, which automates scorecards, routing of appraisal requests, and feedback.

So, both systems blend classic tools such as rating scales with newer methods like digital platforms. Tanzania's innovation is centred on PEPMIS as a sector‑wide platform, while Kenya spreads modern methods across several sector‑specific and organisational tools.

6. Use of appraisal results for HR and organisational decisions

All of these methods would be less meaningful if their results were not used. In both Kenya and Tanzania, appraisal outcomes are connected, at least in design, to human resource decisions and organisational management.

In Tanzania, studies show that OPRAS and PEPMIS results are used, or are supposed to be used, to guide promotions, salary progression, bonuses, and non‑financial incentives. Appraisal information is also meant to help identify training needs, plan staff development, and make decisions about transfers and career advancement. In health facilities and district councils, OPRAS results have been used to decide who should receive training and compensation, while in schools and PEPMIS‑enabled settings, scores influence promotions, salary increments, and access to professional development and targeted support.

In Kenya, appraisal results also feed into HR decisions. Result-orientated employee appraisal systems in county governments use appraisal scores to decide on promotion, training opportunities, and employee selection. In schools, TPAD results are linked to promotions, rewards, and access to training and development programmes. SPAS in the Kenya School of Government and in secondary schools connects appraisal outcomes to promotions, training recommendations, and other forms of recognition. Some Performance Contracting settings include award terms and recognition for high performers, and appraisal data may be used to identify staff who need further support or capacity building.

Overall, therefore, both countries intend appraisal to underpin decisions on who is promoted, trained, rewarded, or supported, even though the strength and fairness of these links vary from one organisation to another.

7. Strong emphasis on the education sector

Finally, one clear similarity is that both Kenya and Tanzania have paid special attention to performance appraisal in the education sector, especially for teachers.

In Tanzania, OPRAS has been used for many years in public secondary schools to assess teachers' work progress, supervise classroom performance, and promote professional improvement. Studies show long‑term use of OPRAS in schools and examine how it is linked to teacher commitment and promotions. At the same time, PEPMIS is being rolled out in primary and secondary schools to support continuous digital supervision, self‑evaluation, feedback, and alignment of daily teaching tasks with annual school work plans. In these settings, appraisal scores can influence promotions, salary increments, and the targeting of professional development activities.

Kenya has developed an equally dense set of practices around teacher appraisal. TPAD is widely used in public secondary schools across different counties. It covers lesson planning, classroom instruction, learner assessment, professional ethics, co‑curricular activities, and innovation, and ties these to school‑level and individual targets. TPAD is also linked to professional development, promotion, and performance improvement plans for teachers. In some schools, SPAS further supports performance planning, appraisal interviews, feedback, and appraisal‑based rewards.

Thus, while appraisal systems cover many sectors in both countries, the education sector, and particularly teacher appraisal, shows the most detailed and elaborate practices and has attracted the most research and reform efforts.

8. Implementation gaps, paperwork and administrative burden

In both Tanzania and Kenya, performance appraisal is widely reported as a formal, time‑consuming procedure and inconsistent implementation, which undermines its developmental purpose.

Tanzania's OPRAS is often seen as complex, paper‑intensive and impractical in crowded, under‑resourced schools and councils and other public organisations, leading to partial use or abandonment. On the other hand, PEPMIS, though reducing paper, brings new burdens of frequent data entry and technical problems. In Kenya, TPAD and Performance Contracting similarly generate complaints about excessive documentation, routine form completion and a bureaucratic feel, especially in contexts of high workload and unclear or weak incentives.

Thus, both systems administratively overload staff, but Tanzania's problem is rooted in a cumbersome paper‑based OPRAS (and demanding digital PEPMIS), whereas Kenya's lies in multiple overlapping tools that embed appraisal in a culture of documentation and compliance.

9. Training, capacity and understanding of appraisal systems

In both countries, inadequate training and limited understanding among supervisors and employees weaken the effective use of appraisal tools such as OPRAS, PEPMIS, Performance Contracting, TPAD and SPAS, with lack of capacity and sensitisation repeatedly cited as a core barrier.

In Tanzania, many studies highlight low understanding of OPRAS across supervisors and supervisees, scarce formal training on OPRAS or PEPMIS, and weak managerial support, especially in councils, health facilities and schools, which leads to confusion over targets, ratings and follow‑up.

In Kenya, capacity gaps occur through insufficient TPAD training, poor preparation of teachers for detailed evidence requirements, limited sensitisation about how Performance Contracting and HRIS work, and inadequate training on result‑oriented appraisal for principals and teachers.

The shared outcome is poorly implemented, overlapping appraisal systems with uneven training support in Kenya, but Tanzania's challenge centres on grasping and owning a single, nationalised framework.

10. Perceptions of fairness, subjectivity, trust and motivation

Employees in both Tanzania and Kenya often doubt the fairness, transparency and objectivity of performance appraisal, leading to resistance, negative attitudes, low trust and weak motivational impact, with subjectivity, bias and unfair reward linkages frequently mentioned.

In Tanzania, OPRAS and PEPMIS are criticised for biased and non‑transparent ratings and for irregular or weak links to rewards and training, sometimes deepening hostility between teachers and heads or fuelling scepticism among wider public servants.

In Kenya, Performance Contracting, TPAD, SPAS and ranking methods attract similar concerns over unfair comparisons, punitive use of feedback, biased ratings, and poor distributive fairness of rewards, eliciting resistance from teachers and unions.

A key difference is that Kenya has more explicit incentive schemes formally tied to appraisal outcomes, which can intensify frustration and conflict when staff perceive those incentives as being allocated unfairly, whereas in Tanzania the problem is often that promised reward linkages are weak, opaque or not realised in practice.

Source: Researchers (2026)

Discussion

5.1.Comparison of Performance Appraisal Practices Between Tanzania and Kenya

5.1.1. Formal Appraisal Systems and Their Application

In both Kenya and Tanzania, performance appraisal has moved away from informal chats to structured, government-backed systems like TPAD and PEPMIS. This finding highlights that both nations are trying to create a professional environment where work is measured using official tools and clear cycles. Recent studies support this by showing that formalising these systems is essential for organisational success and that moving toward digital platforms helps reduce human bias in evaluations ([12]; [49]). The implication here is that having a formal structure provides a standard for accountability, ensuring that every public servant knows they are being watched and measured by the same rules.

5.1.2. Goal and Target Setting

A major part of the appraisal process in these countries is setting SMART goals and signing performance agreements. The findings show that whether it is a teacher in Kenya or a ministry official in Tanzania, everyone must have clear targets aligned with their organisation's plans. Research confirms that individual goal setting is a powerful predictor of how well an employee will perform, as it creates a direct link between personal effort and organisational goals ([83]; [40]). This means that when goals are clear and agreed upon in advance, employees are more likely to stay focused and productive because they know exactly what success looks like.

5.1.3. Participation and Dialogue in the Appraisal Process

While both countries want appraisals to be a two-way conversation, the findings suggest that this doesn't always happen perfectly in practice. Ideally, supervisors and staff should sit down together to plan and review work. Management literature agrees that employee participation is a "make or break" factor for the sustainability of any performance system, yet many organisations still struggle with a lack of real involvement from staff ([4]; Zhong-Li, 2023). The above discussion means that if employees feel they are just being told what to do without a voice, they may view the appraisal as a top-down burden rather than a chance to grow.

5.1.4. Monitoring, Review Cycles, and Feedback

The findings show a shift from "once-a-year" reviews to continuous monitoring, with mid-year check-ins and real-time digital updates. This move toward regular feedback is backed by studies suggesting that continuous, objective processes are much better at improving productivity than episodic, subjective evaluations ([14]; [29]). Through keeping a constant eye on progress, managers can provide help when it is actually needed. The above discussion suggests that regular feedback prevents nasty surprises at the end of the year and allows employees to fix problems as they happen.

5.1.5. Appraisal Methods and Tools

Both countries are blending traditional rating scales with modern digital systems, such as Tanzania's PEPMIS and Kenya's e-performance modules. This finding is consistent with the global trend of using IT-enhanced systems to make data collection more efficient and transparent ([12]; [14]). These digital tools help move away from messy paperwork and can provide more accurate data for decision-making. However, the implication is that the success of these high-tech tools depends heavily on whether the staff is ready and able to use the technology effectively.

5.1.6. Use of Appraisal Results for HR Decisions

The findings indicate that appraisal scores are supposed to lead to real-world consequences like promotions, training, or rewards. Scholarly work emphasises that rewarding employees based on their performance results is vital for the overall effectiveness of the system and the motivation of the workforce ([4]; [49]). If the results are just filed away and never used to help someone get a promotion or a bonus, the whole process becomes meaningless. The above findings and studies imply that for an appraisal system to be respected, there must be a clear and fair link between a good score and a tangible reward.

5.1.7. Strong Emphasis on the Education Sector

There is a very heavy focus on teacher appraisals in both countries, with systems like TPAD being highly detailed. Research shows that teacher appraisal is particularly complex because it involves many different tasks, from lesson planning to professional ethics, all of which impact student outcomes ([67]; [78]). Because the education sector is so large, it often acts as a laboratory for new performance management ideas. The implication is that if these systems work for teachers, they can provide a roadmap for improving performance management across the entire public service.

5.1.8. Implementation Gaps and Administrative Burden

Despite the good intentions, many staff feel that these systems are too time-consuming and buried in paperwork. Studies concur that when there is a misalignment between targets and the actual resources available, it leads to wasted effort and a "bureaucratic feel" that weakens the management tool ([35]; [72]). This suggests that the systems might be too complex for the environments they are in. The implication is that if the administrative burden is too high, people will focus more on filling out forms correctly than on actually doing their jobs well.

5.1.9. Training, Capacity, and Understanding

A common problem found in both countries is that many people do not fully understand how to use the appraisal tools because they haven't been trained properly. Management experts point out that a lack of training and unclear procedures are major hurdles that stop appraisal systems from working as they should ([29]; [34]). Without proper sensitisation, even the most expensive digital system will fail. The findings suggest that governments must invest just as much in training their people as they do in buying new software or designing new forms.

5.1.10. Perceptions of Fairness, Subjectivity, and Trust

Finally, many employees in Kenya and Tanzania worry that appraisals are biased or unfair, which leads to a lack of trust. Research shows that when employees perceive the appraisal process as fair, they are much more motivated and willing to share their knowledge with others in the organisation ([25]; [66]). On the flip side, if they think the system is rigged or based on favouritism, they will resist it. In light of the above, it is crucial to build trust and ensure transparency as the only way to make performance appraisal a truly motivational tool.

Conclusion and Recommendations

6.1. Conclusion of the Study

Organisations in the public service in Kenya and Tanzania practise performance appraisals through the use of various performance appraisal methods/tools. The study concludes that there is a strategic shift from old-fashioned, informal ways of appraising employees. Both governments introduced formal, government-backed systems that focus on setting clear goals and using digital tools to track progress throughout the year. Despite similarities in performance appraisal practices in Tanzania and Kenya, differences such as the use of one main system for everyone by Tanzania emerge. On the contrary, Kenya uses several different tools for different types of jobs. Furthermore, there are challenges emerging from practising performance appraisal in both countries, such as too much paperwork and too tedious digital data entry, lack of training and biased appraisal. Therefore, performance appraisal practices in Tanzania have several similarities with their counterparts in Kenya, despite the existence of few differences in implementation.

2. Recommendations

The following are the recommendations based on the findings of this study:

Governments should simplify the appraisal forms and digital requirements so that staff can focus more on their actual jobs rather than spending hours filling out reports.

There should be regular, hands-on training for both supervisors and employees to make sure everyone understands how to set goals and use the digital systems correctly.

To keep staff motivated, there must be a guaranteed and transparent link between high appraisal scores and real benefits, like promotions, salary raises, or training opportunities.

Since both countries are moving to digital systems like PEPMIS and e-performance modules, they need to ensure that every office has reliable internet and technical support to fix system errors.

Supervisors should be encouraged to have open, honest conversations with their staff throughout the year to reduce bias and make the process feel like a helpful coaching session rather than a "trap" or a punishment.

Source: Researchers (2026)