Public Relations as Configurational Practice: How Institutional Environments Shape Taiwanese Firms' PR in the Philippines, Vietnam, and China

1. Introduction

Multinational enterprises (MNEs) operating within overseas environments confront intricate challenges involving diverse stakeholder relationships, complex regulatory frameworks, and multifaceted cultural norms. Within this context, public relations (PR) functions serve as pivotal mechanisms through which organizations negotiate legitimacy, cultivate reputational capital, and manage the institutional expectations of host countries [1][3]. Despite increasing acknowledgment of the contextually embedded nature of PR practices, there remains a paucity of comparative research elucidating how institutional environments structurally shape the configurational patterns of MNE PR strategies across different national settings [4][5].

This lacuna is particularly evident for MNEs originating from emerging economies, whose internationalization trajectories are marked by distinctive institutional distances, strategic intents, and resource configurations, contrasting with those of Western multinationals [6][7]. Taiwanese firms constitute an instructive empirical site owing to their substantial foreign direct investment over the past three decades into Southeast Asia and the Chinese mainland. This phenomenon has primarily been driven by considerations of cost competitiveness, geopolitical realignments, and market expansion imperatives [8][9].

The PR undertakings of these Taiwanese enterprises in their host countries are integral to fostering relationships with local stakeholders, managing corporate image, and securing organizational legitimacy. Crucially, however, the manner in which these PR practices are strategically configured is profoundly contingent upon the structural characteristics of the institutional environment.

This study investigates the configurational patterns of PR among Taiwanese firms across three host countries—the Philippines, Vietnam, and the Chinese mainland—each embodying systematically distinct political regimes, degrees of economic liberalization, and cultural proximities to Taiwan. The Philippines represents a democratic setting with an open media landscape and historical ties to Taiwan, thus providing an institutional context characterized by pluralistic stakeholder engagement. Vietnam’s socialist governance structure mandates a delicate balance between political oversight and economic liberalization, shaping firms’ interactions with authorities and civil society. Conversely, the Chinese mainland, governed under a socialist political system and complicated by complex cross-strait relations, imposes unique institutional constraints on Taiwan-invested enterprises [10][12].

To rigorously analyze these divergent PR configurations, this study adopts Configuration Theory as its analytical lens, positing that organizational strategies—including PR—are best understood as multidimensional constellations of interrelated characteristics that coalesce into distinct patterns [13][16]. This paradigm enables an exploration beyond the isolated comparison of individual PR tactics toward an integrated understanding of how institutional forces sculpt the overarching architecture of MNE PR practices.

Accordingly, this research addresses two central questions:

RQ1: What are the distinct PR configuration patterns adopted by Taiwanese firms operating within the Philippines, Vietnam, and the Chinese mainland contexts?

RQ2: In what ways do the institutional environments of these host countries shape the configurational patterns of Taiwanese firms’ PR strategies?

This inquiry offers three primary scholarly contributions. First, it extends Configuration Theory into the domain of international PR practice, demonstrating its applicability in explicating how institutional conditions govern the structuring of MNEs’ PR strategies. Second, it empirically delineates how variations in political systems, economic openness, and cultural proximity impart differential influences on PR configurations, enriching the corpus of cross-cultural PR research. Third, it yields practical insights germane to MNE management as firms navigate the intricate institutional landscapes of Southeast and East Asian markets.

2. Theoretical Framework

2.1 Configuration Theory: Origins and Key Concepts

Configuration Theory emerged from organizational design literature as a response to the limitations of single-variable approaches to understanding organizational phenomena. Mintzberg was the first to theorize that organizations could be classified into distinct structural types based on constellations of design parameters [13]. Miller built upon this concept by identifying the "imperatives" that generate configuration and contended that organizational configurations arise from a combination of environmental, structural, strategic, and leadership forces [14]. Meyer, Tsui, and Hinings further clarified this view, defining configurations as “multidimensional constellations of conceptually distinct features that commonly co-occur,” and underscored the necessity for coherence, internal consistency, and theoretical parsimony [15].

It can also be divided into several key principles that contribute to the configurational approach. First, organizational features are interdependent, not independent; if one dimension is altered, corresponding shifts will likely emerge in other dimensions [14]. Second, configurations are holistic, considering the totality of organizational phenomena as opposed to isolated attributes [15]. Third, a limited set of identifiable configurations exists; organizations demonstrate continuous variation but tend to converge into a small group of archetypes [16]. The appropriate configuration of a particular organization depends on the situational factors, predominantly the environmental conditions confronting the organization.

The theory's analytical power is demonstrated in different fields by recent scholarship. Looy, Trkman, and Clarysse employed configuration theory to identify business process orientation archetypes and evaluate their performance implications [17]. Islam et al. applied a configurational lens to examine transaction platform governance in supply chains [18]. Ketchen, Kaufmann, and Carter explored configurational approaches in supply chain management and highlighted areas for theoretical advancement [16]. Schiehl, Lewellyn, and Yan applied configurational analysis to examine boards' attention structures across different governance contexts [19].

2.2 Configuration Theory Applied to Public Relations

The application of configuration theory is of major importance to the field of public relations, a critical theoretical connection that is not yet fully documented in the literature. We suggest that PR strategies should be studied as configurations for several key reasons.

First, PR activities are not isolated measures but integrated bundles of mutually reinforcing organizational practices. An organization's choice of PR targets, its methods for acquiring intelligence about stakeholder sentiments, its resource allocation for media engagement, and its information disclosure policies are all deeply interconnected and make up the same structure. It is imperative not to approach any single dimension in isolation because the systemic logic behind an organization's stakeholder engagement strategy must be taken into account [20][21].

Secondly, the configurational view is consistent with the principle of equifinality, according to which diverse combinations of practices may lead to similar organizational goals [15]. Taiwanese firms working within diverse institutional contexts are likely to encounter different PR configurations that have similar underlying goals like gaining legitimacy or managing stakeholder relationships. This is especially evident in cross-cultural PR research, as contrasting one-to-one practices can underestimate underlying structural similarities and differences.

Third, Configuration Theory's emphasis on aligning organizational characteristics with environmental conditions resonates strongly with the core interests of international PR scholarship—namely, how organizational communication practice aligns with diverse institutional contexts [3][5]. As Mintzberg advocated organizational structures fit their environments, we argue that the configurations of PR must fit the institutional requirements, resources, and stakeholder expectations that frame each host country [13].

The introduction of strategic imperatives as proposed by Miller reinforces such a theoretical link [14]. Miller singled out environmental, structural, strategic, and leadership drivers as determinants that influence configuration formation. In MNE PR strategies, environmental drivers (which encompass political systems, regulatory frameworks, and cultural norms) are particularly salient,especially for firms in situations with high uncertainty and limited resources. The formation of these PR configurations is also influenced by strategic drivers—including the influence of headquarters on subsidiary strategies—particularly in situations where Taiwan-based expatriate managers dominate decision-making processes.

2.3 Cross-Cultural PR and Institutional Context

An increasing body of literature concerns how institutional contexts influence PR practice across national contexts. The Excellence Theory [1][22], despite being prominent, has been criticized for its neglect of institutional and cultural variation [2][3]. Subsequent research has shown that PR models are not universally applicable but are instead mediated by national culture, political systems, and media structures [23][24]. These contextual effects can best be explained with the aid of institutional theory.

Institutional environments are defined as formal rules (laws, regulations, political systems) and informal norms (cultural values, social expectations, professional standards) that influence organizational behavior [25][26]. For MNEs, the organizational policies, including PR strategies, are shaped by the isomorphic pressures generated by the institutional environment in the host country. In response, firms may engage in coercive isomorphism (they may comply with legal or regulatory requirements), mimetic isomorphism (they mimic other successful practices in the field), and normative isomorphism (they adopt standards defined by their profession) [25].

The institutional context for MNE PR practice in Southeast and East Asia exhibits distinct characteristics. More pluralistic stakeholder engagement is possible in the Philippines, which is a democratic country with a relatively free press. Socialist governance and a rapidly evolving market economy in Vietnam make this an institutional environment in which businesses must reconcile economic interests with political tact [27]. Given the China mainland's combination of state capitalism, government authority, and the complex cross-strait relationship, unique institutional demands are generated for Taiwanese firms which have to contend with both economic opportunities and political risks in a cross-strait interaction [11,12].

Research has highlighted the influence of cultural proximity on MNE strategies. Cultural and linguistic similarity between home and host countries can generate a “familiarity effect” ,which informs firm perception and response to institutional demands [28]. Yet, perceived cultural similarity is not synonymous with institutional knowledge, and firms may overestimate their understanding of culturally proximate markets, resulting in strategic missteps.

3. Method

3.1 Research Design

This study uses a mixed-methods research design that combines exploratory qualitative fieldwork with a structured expert elicitation method. The study takes place in three stages: (1) field visits and on-site data collection at approximately 60 Taiwanese firms across three countries; (2) content analysis of qualitative data to identify PR activity categories and develop a survey instrument; and (3) a Delphi expert survey to produce a collective picture of PR configurations across the three national contexts. The sequential design enables exploratory fieldwork findings to inform the structured assessment that ultimately improves the validity and contextual sensitivity of the results [29].

3.2 Field Visits and Data Collection

Before the formal fieldwork, pilot interviews were performed with representatives from an insurance firm operating in the Philippines, a Taiwanese company investing in the Chinese mainland, and a metal manufacturer operating in Vietnam. The pilot interviews influenced the data collection protocol and identified themes for analysis.

Our primary work was on-site visits with approximately 60 Taiwanese companies across the Philippines, Vietnam, and the Chinese mainland. The visits were conducted in a variety of formats (documentation, verbal accounts from the firms’ managers, company publications and artifacts, field notes of observations and in-depth interviews from researchers). The industry participants fell under six different professional sectors including manufacturing, electronics, food processing, textiles, financial services, and construction materials (refer to Tables 2 and 3 for detailed profiles on the respective participants). The visits were intended to provide evidence of the firm PR programs (or PR actions) that had been instituted in those firms, the areas where they occurred, and the rationales managers had given for their strategic moves.

3.3 Content Analysis

Field visit data were analyzed using thematic content analysis. Because of the variety of forms of data available—textual transcripts, audio- and video-recordings, secondary documents, and field notes—we used a theme-based analytical approach. Instead of an analysis of words or sentences, we looked at the meaning units that reflected coherent PR activities or strategies, then grouped these into thematic categories [30].

Regarding the steps of the coding process, first, all sources of data were transcribed and organized by country and firm. Second, two researchers coded the data independently to determine forms of recurring PR activities. Third, the researchers discussed differences, made comparisons between their coding results, and reached a consensus on the resultant categorization scheme. Similar or interrelated activities were consolidated into more general categories. For example, various forms of factory open days, product exhibitions and media briefings were grouped into larger analytical groups based on their communication features (directionality, persuasiveness and resource base). This process produced a structured typology of PR activities,which underpinned the development of a scale for the questionnaire.

3.4 Questionnaire Development

Based on the content analysis, a four dimensions semi-structured questionnaire four dimensions was developed to capture each corporation’s PR settings:corporate PR target audiences,public opinion perception approaches, organizational resources allocated to media engagement, andthe content and forms of information disclosure .

For each identified type of PR activity, three questions were produced, which were those relevant to the specific focus group, the frequency of the activity implementation, and whether the company actively and regularly conducted the activity. The questionnaire employed a semi-open-ended format, allowing participants to provide structured ratings while also offer open-ended comments. In the Delphi survey, the instrument was modified after being reviewed by participants. In the second round of field visits (that were made to Vietnam and the Chinese mainland), the questionnaire was revised to ensure that it captured contextual differences in the implementation. In the Philippines, when identified PR activities were not observed (e.g., factory open days in some contexts), the research team identified substitute activities that performed similar functions (e.g., product presentations) and modified the instrument.

3.5 Delphi Method

As it is difficult to conduct large-scale surveys on Taiwanese overseas firms, we used the Delphi method to obtain expert assessments of the PR configurations across the three national contexts. The Delphi method is a structured group decision-making technique that utilizes insights from a purposefully selected panel of experts to reach a common understanding on complex issues [31][32].

Expert selection criteria. The panel members are selected according to four criteria: First, they should be affiliated with Taiwanese firms that are still able to communicate by email so communication and information exchange can be easily carried out; Second, they need to give detailed opinions; Thirdly, they should represent geographically dispersed firms and not just one place; and finally, they should not all come from a single country, so that we ensure consistent cross-national representation.

Panel composition. The final panel included 31 experts: 8 from the Philippines (A1–A8), 14 from Vietnam (B1–B14), and 9 from the Chinese mainland (C1–C9). Panel members were factory managers, presidents, and general managers, and their companies spanned diverse industries including electronics, textiles, food processing, financial services, construction materials, and manufacturing (see Table 2 for Philippines participants and Table 3 for Vietnam and China mainland participants).

Procedure and scoring methodology. The Delphi survey was performed using a single-round design with quantitative scoring ratios. For each PR dimension, experts were required to rate the relative importance or frequency of different configuration elements. Scores were determined as ratios relative to a designated baseline category. For instance, during the evaluation of PR target audiences, functional targets were compared to non-functional targets (authorized, normative, and diffuse objects, with diffuse objects serving as the baseline set at 1). This ratio-based scoring strategy enables direct comparison of configuration patterns across the three national contexts while accounting for the small expert panel size.

Consensus criteria. The scoring ratio approach reached consensus where more than 50% agreed within a given response category and the ratio of expert ratings exceeded 1 , which meant that expert consensus indicated that the configuration element was more prominent than the baseline. The higher the ratio, the greater the degree of

agreement regarding the prominence of that element.

3.6 Data Analysis Procedure

The research strategy was divided into three stages. First, quantitative scores of the Delphi survey were calculated for each of the PR dimensions for the three national contexts to provide comparative data concerning configuration profiles. Second, qualitative data obtained from fieldwork qualitative insights permitted an interpretatio of our findings to identify aspects that were instrumental to shaping a configuration. Third, these findings were categorized based on the typological grouping and configurational approach proposed by Meyer, Tsui, and Hinings [15] and Miller [14] according to their distinct characteristics.

4. Findings

4.1 PR Configuration Dimensions

The content analysis and Delphi survey identified four major dimensions of PR configuration – represented by several subcategories (Table 1).

Dimension 1: Target of Corporate PR. The target audience for PR activities was categorized based on the nature of the organization's linkage to the firm including: (1) authorized objects — entities with the power to influence the firm's survival, such as government officials, community leaders, and shareholders; (2) functional objects—entities related to basic organizational operations, such as employees, customers, and suppliers; (3) normative objects—entities with normative influence on the firm, sharing values or industry characteristics, such as industry associations and professional groups; and (4) diffuse objects —broader publics with no specific structural relationship to the firm, such as students, general consumers, or community members at large [33].

Dimension 2: Methods to Understand Public Opinion. This aspect measures the ways that companies gather information regarding stakeholder sentiment, categorized along two dimensions: active and passive orientation, and provision and non-provision of fixed channels that obtain stakeholder feedback. There are four modes that emerge, namely, passive with fixed channels, passive without fixed channels, active without fixed channels, and active with fixed channels [1][30].

Dimension 3: Basis for Gaining Media Access. The type of resources employed by firms to access media coverage can be divided into organizational basis (management capabilities, awards, certifications, and organizational events) for media attention, information basis (information from regular channels like press releases and news hotlines), and social basis (engagement in social activities, sponsorships, or community events) for media relationship development media relationships [34].

Dimension 4: Content and Type of Information Disclosure. The communication orientation of information disclosure was divided into two axes: directionality (one-way and two-way) and truthfulness (persuasive/intended and factual/reciprocal), which led to four categories: (1) one-way, incomplete information; (2) one-way, factual information; (3) two-way, persuasive information; and (4) two-way, reciprocal understanding [20,35].

4.2 Cross-Country Comparison of PR Configurations

The Delphi results (Table 4) show similarities and differences across the three national contexts.

Common baseline configurations. Taiwanese firms exhibited a consistent baseline pattern across all three countries: (1) strong emphasis on maintaining relationships with functional targets (customers, suppliers, and employees); (2) predominant use of organizational resources (management capabilities, certifications, awards) as the primary basis for media engagement; and (3) relatively conservative approaches to both understanding public opinion and disclosing information.

This focus on functional targets emphasizes the resource constraints of overseas Taiwanese firms, most of which are small to medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) with limited capacity for broad-based stakeholder engagement. It also has the effect of reducing transaction costs and supporting core business operations by maintaining stable relationships with customers and suppliers. Labor relations were similarly given prominence in the three contexts, as labor unions were far more prevalent in the Philippines and Vietnam and labor regulations in the Chinese mainland are more protective.

The dependence on organizational resources for media engagement remained constant across contexts. This pattern was even more pronounced in the Philippines, reflecting a number of factors, including cultural proximity and historical timing—the development of infrastructure in industrial zones in Subic Bay occurred concurrently with the expansion of Taiwanese firms' capacity for production, thus aligning organizational capabilities with PR [8]. In Vietnam and the Chinese mainland, similar practices were seen when many Taiwanese firms entered through coordinated investment promotion activities with local governments, which developed similar organizational resources for engaging with media.

There are several possible explanations for the conservative approach to public opinion monitoring and information disclosure are implemented. First, Taiwanese small-business owners are often self-reliant. They prefer to resolve difficulties independently rather than consulting external sources. Second, the overseas Taiwanese firms often establish insular networks of kinship and geographic intimacy, remaining relatively separated from local communities and thus more conservative in understanding public opinion and disclosing information to external audiences. Thirdly, the predominance of SMEs among overseas Taiwanese firms means limited resources and PR expertise, making it difficult to establish systematic public opinion monitoring channels.

Country-specific variations. Despite the common baseline, significant variations emerged across the three contexts (Table 5).

In the Philippines, Taiwanese firms exhibited the most pluralistic PR target profile. The ratio of functional to non-functional targets was 1.13 to 1, but within non-functional targets, authorized objects scored 3.5, normative objects 1.42, and diffuse objects 1. This pattern suggests that while functional targets remain important, Philippine subsidiaries maintained relationships with a broader range of stakeholder types. Media engagement relied most heavily on organizational resources (ratio: 2.13 relative to social base set at 1), with information disclosure being predominantly one-way and incomplete.

In Vietnam, Taiwanese firms had a more focused configuration. The functional-to-non-functional target ratio stood at 1.38 to 1, showing that the emphasis on functional targets was heavier than in the Philippines. On the other hand, in terms of non-functional targets, authorized objects were scored at 3.55 and normative objects at 2.18. However, those measures were higher relative to the functional base, suggesting more focused attention patterns . Vietnam had the highest active listening score (2.67) and a relatively high two-way communication ratio (1.04), with factual information scoring 0.87.

Taiwanese firms in the Chinese mainland showed the most unique configuration. The functional-to-non-functional target ratio was 1.26 to 1, while within non-functional targets, authorized objects scored a dramatically higher 6.25 relative to the diffuse baseline—far exceeding the Philippines (3.5) and Vietnam (3.55). The finding demonstrates that Taiwanese firms in the Chinese mainland prioritize their relationships with government and other authorized entities to an exceptional degree. In terms of passive to active, the ratio was 3.35, and the variable/fixed channel ratio was 7.85, indicating a very passive approach to opinion gathering. However, factual information also scored 1.04, suggesting Chinese subsidiaries have relatively more transparency in information disclosure.

4.3 Configuration Typology

Based on the cross-country comparison, we identified three configuration types and a communication orientation typology.

Configuration Type 1: "Diversity Type" (Philippines). Taiwanese firms in the Philippines maintain pluralistic PR relationships across multiple target categories, including functional, authorized, normative, and diffuse objects. This pattern is consistent with the democratic institutional environment of the Philippines, which enables more open and balanced engagement with diverse stakeholder groups. The organizational environment permits Taiwanese firms to develop relationships with a broader range of stakeholders without significant political risk.

Type 2: "Unit Type" (Vietnam)

In Vietnam, our analysis shows that Taiwanese companies adopt a more functional approach to PR oriented towards functional targets. The socialist political system creates an environment where firms are more cautious in their external relationships, concentrating on the stakeholders most directly relevant to business operations. Such an arrangement reflects, simultaneously, institutional limits and strategic maneuverability,as a means of mitigating political risks.

Type 3: "Binary Type" (the Chinese mainland). Taiwanese companies in the Chinese mainland demonstrate a unique type of dual-target configuration -- the functional targets are counterbalanced with authorized (mainly governmental) targets. The extraordinarily high authorized-object score (6.25) reflects the complexity of the political relationship between the two parties in the Taiwan Strait and the overwhelming power of authorities in the Chinese mainland in affecting the conduct of business. One respondent said, “We cannot deny that they can accept whatever the leaders say” (field interview data).

Communication Orientation Typology. From two communication dimensions—active/passive listening (opinion gathering) and one-way/two-way information disclosure—we identified two communication orientations:

• Listening Type (Philippines and Vietnam): These firms demonstrate relatively more active opinion-gathering behaviors, though their information disclosure remains predominantly one-way. Among the two, Vietnamese subsidiaries show the highest active listening score.

• Talking Type (the Chinese mainland): Chinese subsidiaries demonstrate the most two-way and factual communication, but are the most passive in active opinion gathering. This pattern suggests a configuration in which firms are more responsive to direct demands (particularly from government) but less proactive in understanding broader public sentiment.

Note. N/A indicates respondent did not provide information. A1–A8: Philippines; B1–B14: Vietnam; C1–C9: China mainland.

Note. Scores represent ratio-based consensus from 31 Delphi panelists (8 Philippines, 14 Vietnam, 9 China mainland). Higher scores indicate greater relative prominence of that category compared to the baseline.

5. Discussion

5.1 Theoretical Contributions

This study makes two interrelated contributions that advance both Configuration Theory and the international public relations (PR) literature.

Firstly, by extending Configuration Theory into the realm of international PR practice, this research offers a novel theoretical integration. Prior applications of Configuration Theory predominantly focused on organizational structures [13], marketing strategy [16], supply chain management [16], and platform governance [18]. Its deployment in analyzing multinational enterprises’ PR configurations uncovers PR strategies as coherent, multidimensional bundles of interrelated practices. The identification of three distinct configuration archetypes—Diversity, Unit, and Binary—corroborates the fundamental assumption of Configuration Theory that organizational phenomena tend to cluster into a limited set of discrete and recognizable archetypes [15]. Furthermore, the configurational perspective reveals complexity and systemic features that single-variable PR analyses typically overlook. For instance, although a core emphasis on functional stakeholders is consistent across all host countries, a monolithic focus on this dimension would obscure substantial variation in non-functional stakeholder engagement as well as nuanced differences in communication orientations, such as the marked “Talking Type” in the Chinese mainland vis-à-vis the “Listening Type” in Vietnam and the Philippines.

Secondly, this work substantively advances cross-cultural and international PR scholarship by responding to persistent calls for comparative, contextually nuanced empirical investigations [2,3,5]. Through the systematic analysis of Taiwanese enterprises operating in three institutionally divergent settings, the findings explicate how differential political regimes, institutional constraints, and cultural proximities not only modulate discrete PR tactics but fundamentally shape the architecture of PR strategies. The elucidation of the “Binary Type” configuration in the Chinese mainland, which reflects a hybridized orientation balancing operational and government-authorized stakeholders, contributes original insights into the strategizing of MNEs within politically complex and authoritarian environments. This theoretical contribution aligns with institutional theory’s emphasis on the distinctiveness of emerging market contexts where state authority and political embeddedness exert predominant influence over firm behavior, diverging from Western market-oriented paradigms [7,12].

In sum, this study not only broadens the applicability of Configuration Theory to international public relations but also enriches understanding of how MNEs adapt communication practices to institutional heterogeneity, thereby fostering theoretical and empirical advancements in global PR research.

5.2 Institutional Context and PR StrategyThe findings illuminate the nuanced ways in which distinct facets of institutional environments exert differential influences on the configuration of PR strategies. Among these facets, political system characteristics emerge as particularly consequential in shaping stakeholder target selection. The Philippines’ democratic polity facilitates a pluralistic engagement framework, evidenced by the “Diversity Type” configuration, which enables Taiwanese firms to cultivate relationships across a broad spectrum of functional, authorized, normative, and diffuse stakeholders. Conversely, Vietnam’s socialist governance constrains external stakeholder interactions, engendering a more narrowly focused “Unit Type” configuration centered predominantly on functional targets. In the Chinese mainland, the complex interplay of socialist state capitalism and cross-strait political dynamics compels Taiwanese enterprises to adopt the “Binary Type” configuration characterized by an intensive focus on authorized targets, principally government entities, alongside operational stakeholders.

A particularly salient and novel insight concerns the role of cultural proximity in PR strategizing. Despite the linguistic and cultural affinities shared between Taiwan and the Chinese mainland, Taiwanese subsidiaries exhibit markedly passive public opinion monitoring behaviors, as demonstrated by the highest ratios of passive versus active listening and variable versus fixed communication channels. This phenomenon constitutes a “familiarity blind spot,” wherein perceived cultural similarity generates erroneous assumptions of institutional knowledge and reduces firms’ incentives for systematic stakeholder feedback mechanisms. A qualitative remark from a respondent encapsulates this tendency: “I am just a businessman...(problems) handle by myself” (field interview data).This finding has critical theoretical implications, as it problematizes the assumption that cultural proximity necessarily translates into superior institutional comprehension. It underscores that perceptual cultural similarity can engender strategic complacency, thereby obfuscating the need for rigorous stakeholder engagement processes in culturally proximate yet institutionally distinct markets [28]. Consequently, firms must recognize that cultural affinity does not eliminate the necessity for active intelligence gathering and should strategically address the institutional complexities inherent in each host context.Resource limitations among Taiwanese SMEs further influence PR configurations across all three contexts, manifested in their predominant reliance on organizational resources for media engagement rather than information or social bases. This strategic emphasis on leveraging existing organizational capabilities reflects both capacity constraints and pragmatic prioritization. Nonetheless, the comparatively balanced resource utilization observed within the Chinese mainland subsidiaries—the “Balanced Type”—suggests a deliberate diversification of resource bases in response to an environment where singular reliance may prove insufficient or fraught with political risk.

Alternative explanations must be considered alongside institutional rationales. Variations in firm size, industry composition, ownership structure, and tenure within the host country likely modulate PR configurations and warrant further empirical scrutiny. For example, the Chinese mainland sample includes several large shoe manufacturing firms that may possess distinct PR capacities relative to smaller firms predominant in the Philippines and Vietnam. Moreover, the impact of these configurations on firm performance outcomes remains unexplored and constitutes a fertile avenue for future research.

5.3 Practical Implications

The empirical insights derived from this study carry salient implications for multinational enterprise (MNE) managers operating within heterogeneous institutional landscapes. Foremost, practitioners must recognize that PR strategies constitute configurational phenomena—complex assemblages of complementary and interdependent practices rather than isolated tactics. Effective management therefore requires a systemic perspective that emphasizes the coherence and alignment of the organization’s PR architecture in relation to the specific institutional demands of each host country.Second, the identification of the "familiarity blind spot" in culturally proximate markets serves as a cautionary principle: superficial cultural affinity should not be conflated with deep institutional understanding. Taiwanese firms operating in the Chinese mainland demonstrate comparatively weaker systematic public opinion monitoring despite linguistic and cultural similarities. This underscores the imperative for managers in culturally proximate environments to institutionalize formalized stakeholder intelligence mechanisms, thereby mitigating risks associated with assumptions of contextual transparency [28].Third, the distinctive “Binary Type” configuration exhibited in the Chinese mainland necessitates that firms devote deliberate resources and strategic efforts toward cultivating legitimate and robust relationships with governmental authorities. This dual stakeholder emphasis contrasts sharply with the more pluralistic or narrowly functional orientations observed in the Philippines and Vietnam, respectively. Managers of enterprises originating from democratic contexts, such as Taiwan, must especially appreciate the political sensitivity and governmental centrality that characterize semi-authoritarian or authoritarian host markets [12].Fourth, across the three institutional contexts, a pervasive conservative stance on information disclosure was observed, generally favoring one-way, incomplete communication. This presents a substantive opportunity for strategic enhancement. Consistent with the Excellence Theory, increasing transparency and fostering two-way, reciprocal communication channels are likely to yield superior stakeholder relationships and organizational outcomes [1, 22]. While resource constraints—particularly characteristic of small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs)—may pose obstacles to immediately realizing these ideals, gradually embedding systematic opinion monitoring and dialogic communication should be prioritized in PR practice evolution.In summary, MNEs seeking sustainable legitimacy and reputational capital in diverse institutional contexts must conceive of PR as an integrated, context-sensitive system. They should tailor configurational approaches to reconcile institutional exigencies with organizational capacities, thereby optimizing stakeholder engagement and strategic communication effectiveness.

5.4 Limitations and Future Research

Several limitations inherent in the present study delimit the scope of its findings and simultaneously chart trajectories for future inquiry. First, the heterogeneous and at times unstructured nature of the data collected during field visits may introduce interpretive variability and potential researcher bias in the content analysis phase. The absence of standardized data collection protocols constrains inter-rater reliability and external replicability. Future research could mitigate these limitations by implementing more rigorous and systematic data collection instruments to enhance reliability and analytic transparency [30].

Second, the semi-structured questionnaire developed from preliminary qualitative insights, while contextually grounded, may not exhaustively capture the full spectrum of PR activities nor adequately probe the strategic rationales underpinning organizational decisions within diverse Taiwanese overseas enterprises. Expanding the scope and depth of instrument development through iterative validation processes will enrich measurement comprehensiveness.

Third, although the Delphi method adeptly facilitates expert consensus in exploratory contexts, the relatively modest panel size of 31 participants constrains statistical generalizability to the broader population of Taiwanese firms or to multinational enterprises more generally. Additionally, the employment of a single-round Delphi survey, while pragmatic, may limit the depth of consensus achieved compared to multi-round designs [31,32]. Subsequent studies could enhance robustness by incorporating multiple Delphi rounds and larger, more diverse expert panels.

Fourth, the study’s focus on three host countries specifically limits the external validity of the identified PR configurations. The extent to which these typologies generalize to MNEs from other home countries or to Taiwanese firms operating in alternative institutional contexts remains an open empirical question. Expanding comparative analyses to encompass a broader array of home-host country dyads would enable more comprehensive validation of Configuration Theory’s applicability to international PR.

Fifth, the cross-sectional design precludes investigation of temporal dynamics that characterize evolving institutional environments and the attendant adaptations of PR strategies therein. Longitudinal research would yield insights into processes of configurational change and strategic realignment, particularly salient in environments experiencing rapid political, economic, or social transformation, such as Vietnam’s ongoing market liberalization or the fluctuating cross-strait relations [29].

Finally, the performance implications of distinct PR configurations have not been empirically tested within this study. Future research is encouraged to quantitatively examine the relationship between specific configuration types and organizational outcomes, including stakeholder satisfaction, reputational capital, and financial performance. Such analyses would substantively contribute to both the theoretical underpinning and practical valuation of Configuration Theory within the field of public relations [1].

6. Conclusion

This study employed Configuration Theory to systematically examine the public relations (PR) strategies of Taiwanese firms operating within three institutionally distinct host countries: the Philippines, Vietnam, and the Chinese mainland. The findings reveal a shared foundational configuration characterized by an emphasis on functional stakeholder targeting, deployment of organizational resources for media engagement, and a conservative orientation toward communication. However, significant divergences emerge in the breadth and nature of stakeholder engagement as well as in communication orientations, which correspond closely with the political, economic, and cultural contours of each institutional environment.

Specifically, the democratic milieu of the Philippines fosters a “Diversity Type” configuration marked by pluralistic stakeholder engagement. The socialist political framework in Vietnam correlates with a more constrained and focused “Unit Type” configuration, emphasizing operational stakeholders. In contrast, Taiwanese subsidiaries in the Chinese mainland navigate a complex political landscape shaped by cross-strait relations, resulting in a distinctive “Binary Type” configuration that balances interaction with both functional and authorized governmental actors.

Crucially, this research highlights the phenomenon of a “familiarity blind spot” within culturally proximate yet institutionally distinct markets, wherein perceived cultural similarity engenders complacency in systematic stakeholder engagement—an insight of profound practical and theoretical significance. By integrating Configuration Theory into the analysis of international PR practices, the study extends theoretical boundaries and illuminates how institutional environments shape and constrain strategic communication within emerging economy multinational enterprises.

For MNEs expanding their global footprint, particularly those from emerging markets, the imperative emerges to recognize that cultural proximity does not equate to institutional familiarity. Accordingly, PR strategies must be holistically configured to align with the unique institutional exigencies of each host country. This nuanced understanding is vital for crafting effective, legitimate, and sustainable stakeholder engagement frameworks in an increasingly complex global business environment.